Cupeño language

Cupeño
Cupeño
Kupangaxwicham Pe'me̲melki
Region	Southern California, United States
Ethnicity	Cupeño
Extinct	1987, with the death of Roscinda Nolasquez
Revival
Language family	Uto-Aztecan Northern Uto-Aztecan Takic Cupan Cahuilla–Cupeño Cupeño; ; ; ; ;
Writing system	Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3	cup
Glottolog	cupe1243
ELP	Cupeño
	Cupeño is classified as Extinct by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
	This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Cupeño language, an extinct Uto-Aztecan language, was once spoken by the Cupeño people of Southern California, United States.

Roscinda Nolasquez (d. 1987) was the last native speaker of Cupeño.^[3] The Cupeño people now speak English. The native name Kupangaxwicham means 'people from the sleeping place', referring to their traditional homeland, prior to 1902, of Ktipa (at the base of Warner's Hot Springs).^[4]^[5] A smaller village was located to the south of Ktipa, named Wildkalpa.

Throughout the 1890s, there was debate over whether the Cupeño people should be allowed to continue living on traditional Cupeño territory.^[4] After many years of public protests, the California Supreme Court decided to relocate the Cupeño people to the Pala Reservation.^[4]^[5]^[when?]

Cupeño shows linguistic influence from both the languages that preceded it and the Yuman-speaking Ipai, who share their southern border.^[4]

Region

The language was originally spoken in Cupa, Wilaqalpa, and Paluqla, located in San Diego County, California, and later around the Pala Indian Reservation.

Morphology

Cupeño is an agglutinative language, where words use suffix complexes for a variety of purposes with several morphemes strung together. It is dominantly head-final, with a mostly strict word order (SOV)^[3] for some constituents, such as genitive-noun constructions. However, in certain contexts, there is flexibility in the word order, allowing verbs to be shifted to the initial part of a sentence or arguments to follow verbs.^[3]

Nouns

Nouns, as well as demonstratives, determiners, quantifiers, and adjectives, in Cupeño are marked for case and number and agree with each other in complex nominal constructions.^[3]

Verbs

Cupeño inflects its verbs for transitivity, tense, aspect, mood, person, number, and evidentiality.

Evidentiality in Cupeño is expressed with clitics, typically appearing near the beginning of the sentence:

=kuʼut 'reportative' (mu=kuʼut 'and it is said that...')=am 'mirative' =$he 'dubitative'

There are two inflected moods, realis =pe and irrealis =eʼp.

Tense-Aspect system

Future simple verbs remain unmarked. Past simple verbs include past-tense pronouns, while past imperfect verbs add the imperfect modifier as shown below.

	Present	Imperfect	Fut. Imp	Customary
Singular	-qa	-qal	-nash	-ne
Plural	-we	-wen	-wene	-wene

Pronouns

The pronominals in Cupeño manifest in various forms and structures. The following are only attached to past-tense verbs.

	Singular	Plural
1st person	ne-	chem-
2nd person	e-	em-
3rd person	pe-	pem-

Phonology

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i, iː		u, uː
Mid	ɛ, ɛː	ə, əː	o, oː
Low		a, aː

/ɛ/ and /o/ primarily occur in Spanish loanwords but also serve as allophones of /ə/ in native Cupeño words.

/i/ can be realized as [ɪ] in closed syllables and as [e] in some open syllables.

/u/ may reduce to a schwa in unstressed syllables.

/ə/ also appears as [ɨː] when long and stressed, [o] after labials and [q], and as [ɛ] before [w].

/a/ is also realized as [ɑ] before uvulars.

Consonants

		Bilabial	Coronal		Palatal	Velar		Uvular	Glottal
		Bilabial	laminal	apical	Palatal	plain	labial.	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ɲ	ŋ
Plosive		p	t		(t)ʃ^[a]	k	kʷ^[b]	q	ʔ
Fricative	voiceless		s	ʂ	(t)ʃ^[a]	x ~ χ^[c]	xʷ		h
Fricative	voiced	v^[d]	ð^[d]			ɣ
Approximant					j		w
Lateral			l		ʎ
Trill				ɾ^[d]

^ /tʃ/ is realized as [ʃ] in syllable codas.
^ /kʷ/ is realized as [qʷ] before unstressed /a/ or /e/.
^ [x] and [χ] appear to be in free variation.
^ ^a ^b ^c /v/, /ð/, and /ɾ/ appear only in Spanish loanwords.

Lexicon

English words and Cupeño counterparts^[6]
English	Cupeño
one	suplawut
two	wiʼ
three	pa
four	wichu
five	numaqananax
man	naxanis
woman	muwikut
sun	tamyut
moon	munil
water	pal

References

^ "Language Revitalization – Pala Tribe". Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (Report) (3rd ed.). UNESCO. 2010. p. 11.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hill, Jane H. (2005-10-18). A Grammar of Cupeño. UC Publications in Linguistics. Vol. 136. University of California Press.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Sturtevant, William C. (1978). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 8. California: Smithsonian Institution.
^ ^a ^b "Did you know Cupeño is awakening?". Endangered Languages. Retrieved 2022-07-11.
^ "Cupeno Words". www.native-languages.org. Retrieved 2022-07-11.

External links

The Cupeño language^[usurped], Four Directions Institute
Cupeño language, Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
OLAC resources in and about the Cupeño language

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[6] /tʃ/ is realized as [ʃ] in syllable codas.

[7] /kʷ/ is realized as [qʷ] before unstressed /a/ or /e/.

[8] [x] and [χ] appear to be in free variation.

[loanwords-9] /v/, /ð/, and /ɾ/ appear only in Spanish loanwords.

[1] "Language Revitalization – Pala Tribe". Retrieved 2024-05-19.

[2] Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (Report) (3rd ed.). UNESCO. 2010. p. 11.

[hill2005grammar-3] Hill, Jane H. (2005-10-18). A Grammar of Cupeño. UC Publications in Linguistics. Vol. 136. University of California Press.

[:0-4] Sturtevant, William C. (1978). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 8. California: Smithsonian Institution.

[:1-5] "Did you know Cupeño is awakening?". Endangered Languages. Retrieved 2022-07-11.

[10] "Cupeno Words". www.native-languages.org. Retrieved 2022-07-11.

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