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List of ancient watermills

For an overview of early medieval watermills from 500 to 1000 AD, see List of early medieval watermills.

This list of ancient watermills presents an overview of water-powered grain-mills and industrial mills in classical antiquity from their Hellenistic beginnings through the Roman imperial period.

The Barbegal mill, located on a steep slope in southern France, is considered the biggest ancient mill complex. Its capacity was sufficient to feed the whole nearby city of Arles.[1]
Scheme of a water-driven Roman sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor. The 3rd century mill is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[2]

The watermill is the earliest instance of a machine harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour (apart from the sail).[3] As such, it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth.[4]

The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[5] In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel.[6] Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,[7] crushing ore,[8] sawing stones[9] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.[10]

An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought.[11] The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves.[12] Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained a typically rural phenomenon, it also rose in importance in the urban environment.[13]

The data below spans the period until ca. 500 AD. The vast majority dates to Roman times.

Earliest evidence

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Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here.

DateWater-powered mill typesReference (or find spot)Modern Country
Possibly first half of 3rd century BCHorizontal-wheeled mill [5]Byzantium (assigned place of invention)Turkey
Possibly c. 240 BCVertical-wheeled mill [5]Alexandria (assigned place of invention)Egypt
Before 71 BC?Grain-mill ("watermill") [14]Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556Turkey
40/10 BCUndershot wheel mill [15]Vitruvius, X, 5.2Unspecified
40/10 BCPossible kneading machine [16]Vitruvius, X, 5.2Unspecified
20 BC/10 ADOvershot wheel mill [17]Antipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6Unspecified
c. 70 ADTrip hammer[7]Pliny, Naturalis Historia, XVIII, 23.97Italy
73/4 ADPossible fulling mill[18]AntiochSyria
2nd century ADMultiple mill complex [19]Barbegal millFrance
Late 2nd century ADBreastshot wheel mill [20]Les Martres-de-VeyreFrance
Second half of 3rd century ADSawmill; crank and connecting rod system with gear train [21]Hierapolis sarcophagusTurkey
Late 3rd or early 4th century ADTurbine mill [22]Chemtou and TestourTunisia
Late 3rd or early 4th century ADPossible tanning mill [23]SaepinumItaly
?Possible furnace[8]MarseilleFrance
  • Undershot water wheel
  • Breastshot water wheel
  • Overshot water wheel

Written sources

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In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.

ReferenceLocationDateType of evidenceComments on
Ammianus Marcellinus, 18.8.11 [24]Amida359 ADHistoryMultiple mill complex
Antipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6 [20]Unspecified20 BC/10 ADPoemEarliest reference to overshot wheel mill [20]
Ausonius, Mosella, 362–364 [25]Ruwer riverc. 370 ADPoemWater-powered marble saws and grain-mills
Beroea[26]Macedonia2nd century ADDecreeTax revenue from watermills
Cedrenus, Historiarum compendium, p. 295 [516] [27]Indiac. 325 ADHistory
CG-CI, pp. 86–90, no. 41 [28]Corinth6th century AD
CIL, III, 5866 [29]Günzburg1st/3rd century ADEpigraphyMiller’s guild [30]
CIL, III, 14969, 2 [31]Promona1st/4th century ADEpigraphy
CIL, VI, 1711 [32]c. 480 ADEpigraphy
Codex Justinianus, XI, 43, 10, 3 [28]Constantinople474/491 ADLegal code
Codex Theodosianus, XIV, 15.4 [32]398 ADLegal code
Diocletian, XV, 54 [30]301 ADPrice edict
Euchromius, VII, pp. 138–9, no. 169 [33]Sardis4th to 5th/6th century ADEpigraphyWatermill engineer
Gregory of Nyssa, In Ecclesiasten, III, 656A Migne [34]c. 370/390 ADTheologyWater-powered marble saws? [35]
John Cassian, Conlationes Patrum, I, 18 [36]426 AD?Theology
Letter[37]Egypt5th century ADPossible watermill
Libanius, Or. 4.29 [26]Antioch380s ADRhetoricTax on watermills
MAMA, VII, p. 70, no. 305, lines 29–32 [34]Orcistusc. 329 AD [38]EpigraphyTown privilege
Mar. Aur. Apollodotos Kalliklianos [39]HierapolisSecond half of 3rd century ADEpigraphyMember of guild of water-millers
Molitor [30]Châteauneuf1st century ADEpigraphy
Palladius, Opus agriculturae, I, 41, (42) [40]4th/5th century ADTreatiseUse of waste water to drive watermills
Pliny, Naturalis Historia, XVIII, 23.97 [41]Italyc. 70 ADEncyclopediaWater-powered pestles [42]
Sabinianus I, 18c. 450 ADHagiography
Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556 [28]CabiraBefore 71 BC? [43]Geography
Talmud, Shabbat, I, 5 [44]Before 70 AD?
Two inscriptions [18]Antioch73/4 ADEpigraphyPossibly fulling mills
Visigothic Code, VII, 2, 12 and VIII, 4, 29–30 [41]Late 5th century ADLegal code
Vita S. Romani abbatis, 17–18 [45]c. 450 ADHagiographyWater-powered pestles [42]
Vitruvius, X, 5.2 [46]40/10 BCEngineeringEarliest description of undershot wheel mill [46]
Vitruvius, X, 5.2 [16]40/10 BCEngineeringPossible kneading machine

Graphical representations

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This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc.

Place (or object)CountryDateType of evidenceIdentification/Remains
Coemeterium Maius at Rome[47]ItalyLate 3rd century AD?Wall painting
Utica[48]Tunisia4th century ADMosaic[A 1]
Great Palace of Constantinople[49]Turkeyc. 450/500 ADMosaicOne probable and one possible representation
Hierapolis sarcophagus[9]TurkeySecond half of 3rd century ADReliefWater-powered stone sawmill; earliest known crank and connecting rod system [2]

Archaeological finds

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Watermill sites

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Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period.

SiteCountryDateIdentification/Remains
Mouzaïa des Mines, near [50]AlgeriaUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Oued Bou Ardoun [50]AlgeriaPossibly 2nd to 3rd century ADUnspecified remains
Oued Bou Ya'koub [50]AlgeriaUnspecifiedDrop-tower mill
Oued Mellah [50]AlgeriaPossibly 4th century ADDrop-tower mill
Ardleigh, Spring Valley Mill [51]EnglandUnspecifiedPossible Roman watermill site including millstones
Chesters[52]EnglandPossibly 3rd century ADMill-race, mill-chamber, tail-race, millstones
Fullerton[53]EnglandUnspecifiedTwo watermills
Haltwhistle Burn Head[54]England225–70 ADEntire establishment
Ickham I [55]England150–280 ADMill-race, mill-building, fragments of millstones
Ickham II [56]England3rd and 4th centuries ADMill-race, sluice-gate, mill-building, fragments of millstones
Nettleton[57]England230 ADMill-race, sluice-gate, wheel-pit, tail-race
Wherwell[58]EnglandLate 3rd or early 4th century ADMill-channel, mill-building (?), fragments of millstones
Willowford [59]EnglandLate 2nd or 3rd century AD? [60]Water-channels, sluices (?), fragments of millstones
Barbegal mill[61]France2nd century AD [62]Multiple mill complex with sixteen overshot wheels on two mill-races, fed by aqueduct
Fontvieille, Calade du Castellet [63]France5th/6th century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
Gannes[64]FrancePresumably 4th or 5th century ADHorizontal (?) water-wheel
La Bourse[65]FranceLate 5th century ADRemains of waterwheel and curved trough.
La Crau[66]France2nd century ADVertical-wheeled mill
La Garde (Var)[67]FranceUnspecifiedVertical-wheeled mill
Lattes[67]FranceUnspecifiedUnspecified
Le Cannet-des-Maures[68]France5th century ADTwo horizontal-wheeled mills
Les Arcs (Var)[69]France2nd/3rd century ADVertical-wheeled mill
Les Martres-de-Veyre I [70]France1st century ADUnspecified remains
Les Martres-de-Veyre II [70]FranceLate 2nd century AD [20]Entire establishment; breastshot wheel [20]
Lyon-Vaise[71]FranceLate 1st century AD abandonedMillstones, mill-chamber timbers
Paulhan I–III [72]France40/50–early 3rd century ADThree consecutive mills
Pézenas[73]France2nd century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
Saint-Doulchard[74]France1st century ADWooden paddles.
Taradeau[67]FranceLate 2nd–4th century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
Bobingen[75]Germany117/138 ADPosts, boards, mill-race
Dasing[76]GermanyMerovingianTimber posts and mill race, remains of wheel and paddles, millstones.
Inden[77]GermanyEnd of 1st century BCMillstones, wheel-shaft bearings, paddle fragments
Lösnich I [78]Germany2nd/4th century AD? [20]Mill-race, wheel-pit, fragment of a millstone
Lösnich II [78]Germany2nd/4th century AD? [20]Mill-race
Munich-Perlach [79]GermanyEnd of 2nd century ADMill-chamber, mill-race, millstone fragments; possibly duplex drive
Athens, Agora I [80]Greece5th and 6th centuries ADAqueduct, wheel-pit, mill-chamber, tail-race
Athens, Agora II [80]Greece460/75 to c.580 ADEntire establishment
Athens, Agora III [64]GreeceUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
El-Qabu [64]IsraelPossibly RomanUnspecified remains
En Shoqeq [64]Israel2nd century ADMasonry dam with mills
Farod I–III [64]Israel5th or 6th century ADThree drop-tower mills
Farod IV–V [64]IsraelUnspecifiedTwo mills
Ma'agan Michael[64]Israel3rd century AD?Masonry dam, with eleven mills
Nahal Tanninim[81]IsraelEarly 4th/mid-7th century ADSix vertical-wheeled mills with duplex drives and underdriven Pompeian millstones
Wadi Fejjas I–III [64]IsraelProbably RomanThree drop-tower mills
Wadi Serrar [64]IsraelProbably RomanUnspecified remains
Yarkon[64]Israel2nd century ADUnspecified remains
Oderzo[82]Italy2nd century ADMill-race
Rome, Baths of Caracalla I [83]ItalyBetween 212/235 to mid-3rd century ADTwo vertical-wheeled mills
Rome, Baths of Caracalla II [84]ItalyMid-3rd century to 5th century ADTwo vertical-wheeled mills
Rome, Janiculum[85]ItalyEarly 3rd century AD [86]Aqueducts, reservoirs, sluices, millstones
Saepinum[23]ItalyLate 3rd or early 4th century AD [23]Aqueduct, sluice-gates, wheel-pit, tail-race.[64] Recently identified as tanning mill.[23]
San Giovanni di Ruoti [87]ItalyEarly 1st century ADUnspecified remains
Venafro[88]ItalyPossibly early EmpireUndershot water wheel,[89] millstones
Gerasa[90]Jordan6th century ADWater-powered stone sawmill with two four-bladed saws; crank and connecting rod system without gear train
Jarash[91]Jordan527-65 ADWheel-pit walls, bearing emplacements, supply cistern, partly sawn stone drums.
Wadi al-Hasa[64]JordanProbably late RomanAt least nineteen possible drop-tower mills
Oued es Soueïr [50]MoroccoUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Avenches [92]Switzerland57/58–80 ADMill-race timbers
Rodersdorf, Klein Büel [93]Switzerland1st century ADMillstone, mill-race
Palmyra[64]SyriaPossibly RomanUnspecified remains
Chemtou[50]TunisiaLate 3rd or early 4th century ADTriple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels
Testour[50]TunisiaLate 3rd or early 4th century ADTriple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels
Colossae[94]TurkeyUnspecifiedPossible multiple-mill complex [95]
Kurşunlu Waterfall, near Perge[96]TurkeyUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Lamus river[26]TurkeyApparently late antiqueSeven horizontal-wheeled mills

Millstones

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The following list comprises stray finds of ancient millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.[97]

SiteCountryDate (or find context)Remains
Barton Court Farm [98]England4th century AD wellFragments of four millstones
Chedworth[98]EnglandRoman villaOne lower stone, fragment of another
Chew Park [98]EnglandLate 3rd or early 4th century ADOne complete upper stone, part of another
Dicket Mead[98]EnglandRoman buildingFragments of millstones
Leeds[98]EnglandRoman pottery dated to 1st and 2nd centuries ADFragment of millstone
Littlecote Roman Villa[98]England2nd century AD timber buildingFragment of millstone
London[98]England1st-2nd century ADSeveral millstones
London[98]EnglandLate 2nd century AD Roman shipOne unfinished millstone
Selsey[98]EnglandUnspecifiedFragment of millstone
Vindolanda[99]EnglandPossibly RomanFour millstones
Wantage[99]EnglandOn display in museumTwo millstones
Woolaston[98]Englandc. 320 ADTwo upper millstones
La Chapelle-Taillefert[98]FrancePottery and coins from 2nd century ADPair of millstones
Lyon[98]FranceOn display in museumMany unpublished millstones
Paris[99]FranceOn display in museumSix millstones
Aalen[98]GermanyOn display in museumFive millstones
Cologne[99]GermanyOn display in museumThree millstones
Dasing[100]GermanyUnspecifiedFragments of millstones
Koblenz[98]GermanyOn display in museumSeveral millstones
Mayen[98]GermanyQuarryUnfinished Roman millstones
Budapest[99]HungaryOn display in museumSix millstones
Beit She'an[98]IsraelLate 4th or early 5th century ADUpper millstone
Buqueiah [98]IsraelAllegedly from ancient watermillUpper millstone
Bologna[98]ItalyOn display in museumSix millstones
Naples[98]ItalyProbably RomanSeveral millstones
Palatine, Rome[101]Italy4th or 5th century AD47 millstones from at least five watermills
Apulum[98]Romania2nd or 3rd century ADPair of millstones
Cluj-Napoca[98]Romania2nd or 3rd century ADUpper millstone
Micia[98]Romania2nd or 3rd century ADPair of millstones
Caerwent[98]WalesSmithyMillstones
Whitton [98]WalesUnspecifiedFragment of millstone

Water wheels and other components

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Although more rare than the massive millstones, finds of wooden and iron parts of the mill machinery can also point to the existence of ancient watermills.[102] Large stone mortars have been found at many mines; their deformations suggest automated crushing mills worked by water wheels.[103]

SiteCountryDate (or find context)Remains
Great Chesterford[98]EnglandEarly 5th century AD hoardIron spindle with three winged rynds
Silchester[98]EnglandMid-4th century AD hoardIron spindle
Saint-Doulchard[104]France1/10 to c.50 ADPaddles, mill-chamber posts
Conimbriga[99]PortugalOn display in museum, allegedly 1st century ADMill-wheel
Hagendorn[105]SwitzerlandLate 2nd century ADThree undershot wheels
Dolaucothi[8]Wales1st and 2nd centuries ADStone anvil (Carreg Pumsaint) nearby

References

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  1. ^ Greene 2000, p. 39
  2. ^ a b Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161
  3. ^ Wilson 2002, p. 9
  4. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 371
  5. ^ a b c Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f.; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11; Wilson 2002, pp. 7f.
  6. ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15
  7. ^ a b Wikander 1985, p. 158; Wikander 2000b, p. 403; Wilson 2002, p. 16
  8. ^ a b c Wikander 2000b, p. 407
  9. ^ a b Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
  10. ^ Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f.
  11. ^ Wikander 1985, pp. 151–154; Wikander 2000a, pp. 370–373; Wilson 2002, pp. 9–17; Brun 2006, pp. 7–9
  12. ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 397–400
  13. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 379
  14. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000a, p. 396
  15. ^ Wikander 2000a, pp. 373f.; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 12
  16. ^ a b Wikander 2000b, p. 402
  17. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 375; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 13
  18. ^ a b Wikander 2000b, p. 406
  19. ^ Wikander 1985, pp. 154–162; Wilson 2002, p. 11
  20. ^ a b c d e f g Wikander 2000a, p. 375
  21. ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 154
  22. ^ Wilson 1995, pp. 507f.; Wikander 2000a, p. 377; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 13
  23. ^ a b c d Brun & Leguilloux 2014, pp. 160–170; Wilson 2020, p. 171
  24. ^ Wilson 2001
  25. ^ Wikander 2000b, pp. 404f.
  26. ^ a b c Wilson 2001, p. 235
  27. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 163, fn. 109; Wikander 2000a, p. 400
  28. ^ a b c Wikander 1985, p. 160
  29. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 169, fn. 41
  30. ^ a b c Wikander 2000a, p. 398
  31. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 160; Wikander 2000a, p. 398
  32. ^ a b Wikander 2000a, p. 400, fn. 123
  33. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 82; Brun 2006, p. 105
  34. ^ a b Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 82
  35. ^ Wikander 2000b, p. 405
  36. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 399, fn. 121
  37. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 69
  38. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 399
  39. ^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 143–146
  40. ^ Spain 2008, p. 82
  41. ^ a b Wikander 1985, p. 158
  42. ^ a b Wikander 2000b, p. 403
  43. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 396
  44. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 161; Wikander 2000a, p. 397, fn. 104
  45. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 170, fn. 45
  46. ^ a b Wikander 2000a, pp. 373f.
  47. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 170, fn. 61; Wikander 2000a, p. 375
  48. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 159
  49. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 171, fn. 77; Wikander 2000a, pp. 384f.
  50. ^ a b c d e f g Wilson 1995, pp. 507f.
  51. ^ Spain 1984, pp. 111–112
  52. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 35–36
  53. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 25–27
  54. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 43–46
  55. ^ Spain 1984b, pp. 143–180
  56. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 33–35
  57. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 28–29
  58. ^ Spain 1984, pp. 115–116
  59. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 36–37
  60. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 397, fn. 106
  61. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 14–25
  62. ^ Wilson 2002, p. 11
  63. ^ Amouric et al. 2000
  64. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Wikander 1985, pp. 154–162
  65. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 29–31
  66. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 21–22
  67. ^ a b c Brun 2006, p. 113
  68. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 107, 113
  69. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 113
  70. ^ a b Spain 2008, pp. 46–48
  71. ^ Brun & Borréani 1998, p. 315; Brun 2006, p. 112
  72. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 113, 116
  73. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 107, 116
  74. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 51
  75. ^ Wikander 2014, p. 207
  76. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 40–41
  77. ^ Geilenbrügge 2010, p. 4; Geilenbrügge & Schürmann 2010; Images: 1 and 2
  78. ^ a b Spain 2008, pp. 61–63
  79. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 41f.; Wikander 2014, p. 207
  80. ^ a b Spain 2008, pp. 55–59
  81. ^ Ad, Saʿid & Frankel 2005; Spain 2008, pp. 59–61
  82. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 42f.
  83. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 22–24
  84. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 51–55
  85. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 37–40
  86. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 393
  87. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 374
  88. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 64–67
  89. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 385
  90. ^ Wilson 2002, p. 16; Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149–151
  91. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 24–25
  92. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 31–32
  93. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 111f.
  94. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 59
  95. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 394, fn. 95
  96. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 105, 107
  97. ^ Wikander 2000a, p. 372
  98. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Wikander 1985, pp. 163–165
  99. ^ a b c d e f Wilson 2002, pp. 10
  100. ^ Czysz 1994, p. 152
  101. ^ Brun 2006, pp. 107, 110
  102. ^ Wikander 1985, p. 165
  103. ^ Burnham 1997, pp. 332–336
  104. ^ Champagne, Ferdière & Rialland 1997; Brun 2006, p. 112
  105. ^ Spain 2008, pp. 49–50

Notes

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  1. ^ Character as watermill disputed (Wilson 1995, p. 375)

Sources

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Watermill lists which summarize the rapidly developing state of research are provided by Wikander 1985 and Brun 2006, with additions by Wilson 1995 and 2002. Spain 2008 undertakes a technical analysis of around thirty known ancient mill sites.

  • Ad, Uzi; Saʿid, ʿAbd al-Salam; Frankel, Rafael (2005), "Water-mills with Pompeian-type Millstones at Nahal Tanninim", Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 156–171
  • Amouric, Henri; Thernot, Robert; Vacca-Goutouli, Mireille; Bruneton, Hélène (2000), "Un moulin à turbine de la fin de l'Antiquité. La Calade du Castellet (Fontvieille)", in Leveau, Philippe; Saquet, J. P. (eds.), Milieu et sociétés dans la Vallée des Baux. Études présentées au colloque de Mouriès, Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise (Supplement), vol. 31, Montpellier: Association de la Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise, pp. 261–274, ISBN 978-2-84269-369-5
  • Brun, Jean-Pierre (2006), "L'energie hydraulique durant l'Empire romain: quel impact sur l'economie agricole?", in Lo Cascio, Elio (ed.), Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano: atti degli Incontri capresi di storia dell'economia antica (Capri 13-16 Aprile 2003), Bari: Edipuglia, pp. 101–130, ISBN 978-88-7228-405-6
  • Brun, Jean-Pierre; Borréani, Marc (1998), "Deux moulins hydrauliques du Haut-Empire romain en Narbonnaise: Villae des Mesclans à La Crau et de Saint-Pierre/Les Laurons aux Arcs (Var)", Gallia, vol. 55, pp. 279–326
  • Brun, Jean-Pierre; Leguilloux, Martine Leguilloux (2014), "Les installations artisanales romaines de Saepinum. Tannerie et moulin hydraulique", Collection du Centre Jean Bérard 43, Archéologie de l’artisanat antique 7, Naples: Centre Jean Bérard, ISSN 1590-3869
  • Burnham, Barry C. (1997), "Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: The Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint", Britannia, vol. 28, pp. 325–336, doi:10.2307/526771
  • Champagne, Frédéric; Ferdière, Alain; Rialland, Yannick (1997), "Re-découverte d'un moulin à eau augustéen sur l'Yèvre (Cher)", Revue archéologique du Centre de la France, vol. 36, pp. 157–160
  • Czysz, Wolfgang (1994), "Eine bajuwarische Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing", Antike Welt, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 152–154
  • Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, vol. 52, pp. 1–17, doi:10.2307/3643076, JSTOR 3643076
  • Geilenbrügge, Udo (2010), Älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas entdeckt (PDF), Archäologie in Deutschland, vol. 2010/1, Stuttgart: Theiss, p. 4, ISSN 0176-8522
  • Geilenbrügge, Udo; Schürmann, Wilhelm (2010), "Die älteste Wassermühle Mitteleuropas im Indetal bei Altdorf?", in Kunow, Jürgen (ed.), Archäologie im Rheinland 2009, Archäologie im Rheinland, Stuttgart: Theiss, pp. 62–64, ISBN 978-3-8062-2383-5
  • Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151
  • Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 20, pp. 138–163
  • Spain, Robert (1984), "Romano-British Watermills", Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 100, Kent Archaeological Society, pp. 101–128
  • Spain, Robert (1984b), "The Second-Century Romano-British watermill at Ickham, Kent", History of Technology, vol. 9, pp. 143–180
  • Spain, Robert (2008), The Power and Performance of Roman Water-mills. Hydro-mechanical Analysis of Vertical-wheeled Water-mills, British Archaeological Reports. International Series, vol. 1786, Oxford: Archaeopress, ISBN 978-1-4073-0217-1
  • Wikander, Örjan (1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", History of Technology, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
  • Wikander, Örjan (2000a), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
  • Wikander, Örjan (2000b), "Industrial Applications of Water-Power", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 401–410, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
  • Wikander, Örjan (2014), "Early Water-mills East of the Rhine", in Karlsson, Lars; Carlsson, Susanne; Kullberg, Jesper (eds.), ΛΑΒΡΥΣ. Studies presented to Pontus Hellström, Boreas. Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations, vol. 35, Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet, pp. 205–219, ISBN 978-91-554-8831-4
  • Wilson, Andrew (1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
  • Wilson, Andrew (2001), "Water-Mills at Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus 18.8.11" (PDF), The Classical Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 231–236, doi:10.1093/cq/51.1.231
  • Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 92, pp. 1–32, doi:10.2307/3184857, JSTOR 3184857
  • Wilson, Andrew (2020), "Roman Water-Power. Chronological Trends and Geographical Spread", in Erdkamp, Paul; Verboven, Koenraad; Zuiderhoek, Arjan (eds.), Capital, Investment, and Innovation in the Roman World, Oxford University Press, pp. 147–194, ISBN 978-0-19-884184-5

Further reading

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